The States of West Africa
· Developed over 8th-16th centuries
·Kingdom of Ghana
o Not related to modern State of Ghana
o Major Gold Trader
· Mali Empire, 13th century
· Songhay Empire, 15th century
o Suni Ali (r. 1464-1493) created effective army and navy
o Musket-bearing Moroccan army destroys Songhay forces, regional city-states exert local control
Who: Various states and empires in West Africa, including the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, and Songhai Empire.
What: Flourishing states and empires in West Africa, known for their wealth, trade networks, and cultural achievements.
Where: Present-day countries such as Ghana, Mali, Senegal, Niger, and Nigeria.
When: 8th to 16th centuries.
Why: These states thrived due to their control over key trade routes, such as the trans-Saharan trade, which facilitated the exchange of gold, salt, and other valuable commodities. They also benefited from agricultural productivity, strong leadership, and cultural advancements, including the spread of Islam.
Who: Various African kingdoms and Arab merchants What: Trade network across the Sahara Desert Where: Across the Sahara Desert, connecting West Africa and North Africa When: From around the 8th century to the 16th century Why: To exchange goods such as gold, salt, ivory, slaves, and textiles, fostering cultural exchange and economic growth.
Swahili Decline in East Africa
· Portuguese Vasco da Gama skirmishes with Africans on eastern coast, 1497-1498
· 1502: returned, forces Kilwa to pay tribute
· 1505: Portuguese gun ships dominate Swahili ports
Who: The Swahili people
What: Decline of Swahili civilization
Where: East Africa
When: 16th to 19th centuries
Why: Factors include Portuguese colonization, slave trade, and political instability
The Kingdom of Kongo
· Relations with Portuguese beginning 1483
· King Nzinga Mbemba (Alfonso I, r. 1506-1542) converts to Christianity, which endorsed their rule
o Useful connection with Portuguese interests
o But zealous convert, attempts to convert population at large
Who: The Kingdom of Kongo What: A centralized African kingdom Where: Located in present-day Angola, Republic of Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo When: Founded in the 14th century, flourished from the 15th to 17th century Why: Established for political and economic purposes, influenced by trade with Europeans, and practiced Christianity
Slave Raiding in Kongo
·Initial Portuguese attempt at slave raiding
· Soon discovered it is easier to trade weapons for slaves provided by African traders
o Dealt with several authorities besides Kongo
· Kongo kings appeal without success to slow, but not eliminate, slave trade
·Relations deteriorate, Portuguese attack Kongo and decapitate king in 1665
· Improved slave market develops in the south
Who: Portuguese slave traders and Kongolese people
What: Slave raiding, capturing Kongolese people as slaves
Where: Kingdom of Kongo, located in present-day Angola and Congo
When: Primarily during the 16th and 17th centuries
Why: Portuguese sought slaves for labor in their colonies, leading to violent raids on Kongolese communities.
The Kingdom of Ndongo (Angola)
· Ndongo gains wealth and independence from Kongo by means of Portuguese slave trade
· But Portuguese influence resisted by queen Nzinga (r.1623-1663)
o Posed as male King, with male concubines in female dress attending her
· Nzinga establishes temporary alliance with Dutch in unsuccessful attempt to expel Portuguese
o Decline of Ndongo power after her death
Who: Kingdom of Kongo What: Central African kingdom Where: Present-day Angola, Republic of Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo When: 14th century to 19th century Why: Established for political and economic purposes, traded with Europeans, had a centralized government, and practiced Christianity. Declined due to internal conflicts, slave trade, and European colonization.
Regional Kingdoms in South Africa
· Cheiftans develop trade with Swahili city-states
· 1300: Great Zimbabwe
· Dutch build Cape Town in 1652, increased involvement with southern African politics
o Encounter Khoikhoi people (“Hottentots”)
· British colonies also develop
Who: Various indigenous tribes and ethnic groups in South Africa. What: Formation of regional kingdoms. Where: South Africa. When: From ancient times to the arrival of European colonizers. Why: To establish political control, protect resources, and maintain social order.
Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa
· Pre-Islamic paganism, ancestor worship
· Islam develops in commercial centers
· Timbuktu becomes major centers of Islamic scholarship by 16th century
· African traditions and beliefs blended into Islam
· Gender relations, standards of female modesty
Who: Islamic traders, scholars, and missionaries What: Spread of Islam Where: Sub-Saharan Africa When: From the 8th century onwards Why: Trade, cultural exchange, and conversion
The Fulani
· Movement to impose strict adherence to Islamic norms in Africa
· 1680 begins military campaigns to enforce sharia in west Africa
· Considerable influence extends to south as well
The Fulani were a pastoralist and nomadic people from West Africa. They originated in the Senegambia region and gradually migrated eastward. They established a powerful empire known as the Fulani Empire, which reached its height in the 19th century. The Fulani were primarily Muslim and played a significant role in spreading Islam across the region. They were known for their strict adherence to Islamic law and their strong military organization. The Fulani Empire eventually declined due to internal conflicts and European colonization. Today, the Fulani people are spread across several countries in West Africa and continue to maintain their cultural and religious traditions.
Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa
· Like African Islam, syncretic with African beliefs
· Antonian movement flourishes early 18th century
· Founded by Doña Beatriz, claims possession by St. Anthony of Padua (13th century Franciscan preacher, patron saint of Portugal)
· Promotes distinctly African Christianity
o Jesus a black man, Kongo the holy land, heaven for Africans
o Christian missionaries persuade King Pedro IV of Kongo to burn her at the stake
Who: Christianity What: Spread and establishment in Sub-Saharan Africa Where: Sub-Saharan Africa When: From the 1st century CE onwards Why: Through trade, missionary efforts, and cultural interactions, Christianity gained followers and established a presence in Sub-Saharan Africa, blending with local traditions and beliefs. It provided spiritual guidance, social cohesion, and a connection to the wider Christian world.
Social Change in Early Modern Africa
· Trade with Europeans brings new goods to Africa
· New crops from Americas
o Manioc (cassava) becomes staple bread flour
· Increased food supply boosts population growth despite slave trade
Who: Various African societies What: Social changes in early modern Africa Where: Across different regions of Africa When: During the early modern period (approximately 1500-1800) Why: Factors such as the transatlantic slave trade, European colonization, and the introduction of new technologies and ideas led to social transformations in Africa. These changes included shifts in political structures, economic systems, religious practices, and social hierarchies.
Foundations of the Slave Trade
· African slavery dates to antiquity
o War captives, criminals, people expelled from clans
· Distinct from Asian, European slavery
o No private property, therefore wealth defined by human labor potential, not land
o Slaves often assimilated into owner’s clan
Who: European colonial powers (such as Portugal, Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands)
What: The establishment of the transatlantic slave trade
Where: Primarily in West Africa and the Americas
When: From the 15th to the 19th centuries
Why: Economic motivations, including labor needs on plantations and profit from the trade in enslaved Africans. Also driven by racial prejudices and the desire for power and control.
The Islamic Slave Trade
· Dramatic expansion of slave trade with Arab traders
· New slaves acquired by raiding villages, selling on Swahili coast
· Arab traders depend on African infrastructure to maintain supply
· European demand on west coast causes demand to rise again
Who: Islamic traders and African societies What: The Islamic Slave Trade Where: Across various regions of Africa, the Middle East, and beyond When: From the 7th century to the 20th century Why: Economic motivations, labor demands, and cultural factors
The Early Slave Trade
· Portuguese raid West African coast in 1441, take 12 men
· Met with stiff resistance
· African dealers ready to provide slaves
· 1460: 500 slaves per year sold to work as miners, porters, domestic servants in Spain and Portugal
· 1520: 2,000 per year work in sugarcane plantations in the Americas
Who: European colonial powers, African slave traders, African slaves
What: The forced transportation of African slaves to the Americas
Where: Primarily from West Africa to the Americas (North, Central, and South)
When: From the 15th to the 19th centuries
Why: Economic demand for labor in European colonies, fueled by the Atlantic slave trade and the growth of plantation economies.
The Triangular Trade
· European ships undertook voyages on three legs
1. European manufactured goods (especially firearms) sent to Africa
2. African slaves purchased and sent to Americas
3. Cash crops purchased in Americas and returned to Europe
Who: European colonial powers, African slave traders, and American plantation owners.
What: Triangular Trade was a system of trade routes between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Where: The trade routes connected Europe (mainly Britain, France, and Portugal), Africa (primarily West Africa), and the Americas (particularly the Caribbean and North America).
When: The Triangular Trade flourished from the 16th to the 19th centuries, with its peak during the 18th century.
Why: Europeans sought raw materials from Africa, such as slaves, gold, and ivory, which were then transported to the Americas. In the Americas, the slaves were sold and forced to work on plantations, producing goods like sugar, tobacco, and cotton. These goods were then shipped back to Europe, completing the triangular trade cycle. The primary motivation behind this trade was economic profit and the desire for resources to fuel European colonial expansion.
The Middle Passage (Africa-Americas)
· African slaves captured by raiding parties, force-marched to holding pens at coast
· Middle passage under horrific conditions
o 4-6 weeks
o Mortality initially high, often over 50%, eventually declined to 5%
· Total slave traffic, 15th-18th c.: 12 million
· Approximately 4 million
Who: African slaves, European slave traders, and colonial powers.
What: The Middle Passage was the transatlantic journey of enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas.
Where: It occurred across the Atlantic Ocean, primarily between West Africa and the Americas.
When: The Middle Passage took place from the 16th to the 19th centuries, during the era of the Atlantic slave trade.
Why: The Middle Passage was driven by the demand for labor in the Americas, particularly in European colonies. African slaves were forcibly transported to work on plantations, mines, and other industries, resulting in immense suffering and loss of life.
Impact on African Regions
· Rwanda, Bugunda, Masai, Turkana resist slave trade
· Benefit from distance from slave ports on western coast
· Other societies benefit from slave
o Asante (mostly from modern Ghana) , Dahomey (modern Benin), Oyo peoples (mostly from modern Nigeria)
Social Effects of Slave Trade
· Total African population expands due to importation of American crops
· Yet millions of captured Africans removed from society, deplete regional populations
· Distorted sex ratios result
o 2/3 of slaves male, 14-35 years of age
o Encouraged polygamy, women acting in traditionally male roles
Who: African slaves, European slave traders, and the societies involved in the slave trade.
What: Social effects of the slave trade, including the forced migration and enslavement of millions of Africans.
Where: Primarily in Africa, Europe, and the Americas.
When: Spanning from the 15th to the 19th centuries.
Why: The slave trade was driven by economic interests, such as labor demands in the New World colonies and the desire for profit by European traders. It resulted in the brutal exploitation, dehumanization, and displacement of African people, leading to profound social and cultural consequences, including the destruction of families, loss of cultural heritage, and the perpetuation of racial inequalities.
Political Effects of Slave Trade
· Introduction of Firearms increases violence of pre-existing conflicts
· More weapons, more slaves; more slaves, more weapons
· Dahomey people create army dedicated to slave trade
· 25,000 cowrie shells for 1 person
· Captives exchanged for guns
Who: European colonial powers, African kingdoms, enslaved Africans
What: Slave trade
Where: Africa, Americas, Europe
When: 15th to 19th centuries
Why: Economic gain, labor needs, racial ideologies, colonization, power dynamics
African Slaves in Plantation Societies
· Most slaves in tropical and subtropical regions
· First plantation established in Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic) 1516
· Later Mexico, Brazil, Caribbean and Americas
· Sugar major cash crop
o Later: tobacco, rice, indigo, cotton, coffee
· Plantations heavily dependent on slave labor
· Racial divisions of labor
Who: African slaves What: Forced labor in plantation societies Where: Various colonies in the Americas When: 16th to 19th centuries Why: Economic demand for labor, fueled by the growth of plantation economies and the transatlantic slave trade. Slavery became deeply entrenched in the social, political, and economic systems of these societies, leading to the establishment of racial hierarchies and the perpetuation of systemic oppression.
Regional Differences
· Caribbean, South America: African population unable to maintain numbers through natural means
o Malaria, yellow fever
o Brutal working conditions, sanitation, nutrition
o Gender imbalance
· Constant importation of slaves
· North America: less disease, more normal sex ratio
o Slave families encouraged as prices rise in 18th century
Resistance to Slavery
· Half-Hearted work effort
· Sabotage
· Flight (Maroon populations - were runaway slaves who formed independent settlements together)
· Revolts
Slave Revolts
· Only one successful revolt
o French-controlled St.-Domingue (1793)
o Renamed Haiti
· Elsewhere, revolts outgunned by Euro-American firepower
Video
· Grand Blancs
· Petit Blancs
· Free people of color
· Life expectancy if brought to saint Domingue 2-3 years
· If born on the island life expectancy was 16 years
· Set fields and plantations on fire so slave economy tanks
· French respond by producing newspapers with images of slaves brutally killing owners
· Original goal was no combat with owners
· During this time French was at war with English and Spanish
· Had Haitian Creole and Voodoo religions
· 1791 revolution began
· 1794 French abolish slavery
· 1797 Louverture named governor general
· 1803 forced French out
· 1804 Haitian revolution declares independence
· First Haitian constitution written in 1805
· Jean-Jacques Dessalines assassinated
· 1825 France recognizes Haitian independence
· 1862 United states recognizes Haitian independence
Who: Enslaved individuals What: Revolts against their oppressors Where: Various locations, including Haiti, Jamaica, and the United States When: Throughout history, with notable revolts in the 18th and 19th centuries Why: To resist and challenge the institution of slavery, seeking freedom and justice.
African-American Culture
· Diver
· Blend of cultures
· African languages when numbers permit, otherwise European language adapted with African influences
o Creole languages
· Christianity adapted to incorporate African traditions
The Abolition of Slavery
· Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797), former slave authors best-selling autobiography
o Eloquent attacks on institution of slavery
· Economic costs of slavery increase
o Military expenses to prevent rebellions
o 18th century: price of sugar falls, price of slaves rises
o Wage labor becomes more efficient
§ Wage-earners can spend income on manufactured goods
Who: Various abolitionists, including Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and William Lloyd Garrison. What: The movement to end slavery and the subsequent legal abolition of slavery. Where: Primarily in the United States, but also in other parts of the world. When: The abolitionist movement gained momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries, leading to the Emancipation Proclamation in the United States in 1863 and the 13th Amendment in 1865. Why: Abolitionists fought against the inhumane treatment of enslaved individuals, advocating for their freedom and equal rights. The abolition of slavery aimed to end the institution's moral and social injustices.
End of the Slave Trade
· Denmark abolishes slave trade in 1803, followed by Great Britain (1807), United states (1808), France (1814),Netherlands (1817), Spain (1845)
· Possession of slaves remains legal
· Clandestine trade continues to 1867
· Emancipation of slaves begins with British colonies (1833), then French (1848), U.S. (1865), Brazil (1888)
· Saudi Arabia and Angola continue to the 1960s
Who: Various nations and individuals involved in the transatlantic slave trade.
What: The cessation of the transatlantic slave trade.
Where: Primarily in Africa, Europe, and the Americas.
When: The process began in the late 18th century and continued until the early 19th century.
Why: Factors such as abolitionist movements, changing economic conditions, and moral objections contributed to the end of the slave trade.
